The Enlightenment

I. In 1784, the great German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, wrote, "What is Enlightenment?"

II. The meaning of Enlightenment.

A. If we think of the Reformation, the major concern of its proponents was, again, salvation, man´s relation to God, how sinful man can find faith and salvation in this world. If we think of the Scientific Revolution, the major concern is explaining the natural world around us, the physical universe, in the skies and on planet earth.
B. When we move to the Enlightenment, the focus of concern becomes: man himself (to use the Enlightenment´s own gendered language).
C. An enormous self-consciousness among the philosophes that theirs is a particular age--of Enlightenment--and that they are forging the path to the future betterment of humankind.
D. The word itself:

1. In English, Enlightenment, in German, Aufklärung--to explain, to clarify, to enlighten.
2. In French, la lumière, in Italian illuminazione. To illuminate (which the English might have as well).

E. The program.

1. Constitutionalism or republicanism.
2. Rule of law, and natural law in particular. Rights inhere in man.
3. Political liberties--to write, publish, discuss.

F. The critique:

1. Against "despotism."
2. Against church.
3. Against "excessive" privilege.
4. Against superstition, ignorance.
5. Against torture, unusual cruelty.

G. The philosophical premises.

1. Rational man.
2. Empiricism.
3. Deism--God as prime mover.

H. But also, the development of race thinking.

III. The public sphere and its meaning.

A. The classic definition: between state and society.
B. The sites of the public sphere:

1. Salons and the role of women.
2. Academies.
3. Philosophes--men of letters, write for a public, learned, but not necessarily formal philosophers.
4. Newspapers, which emerge in the latter part of the eighteenth century out of business reports.
5. Grub Street with its cafes instead of the salon. (Darnton, 23-24) The demimonde of literature, cheap novels, pamphlets, pornography.
6. The city as the center, but also learned country gentlemen and literary salons in the countryside.
7. Notably, its international dimension.
8. Patronage, but also emergence of the market.

C. Encyclopedia, edited 1751-1772 by Diderot. Not the first such work, but the first with such a star-studded cast of contributors and the first with a critical bent. About 25,000 sets sold before 1789, about half outside of France.

IV. Some philosophes:

A. Montesquieu 1689-1755. Spirit of Laws 1748.
B. Voltaire 1694-1778.
C. Rousseau 1712-1778.
D. Physiocrats and the science of economics.

V. Enlightened Absolutism.

A. Is there such a thing? The historiographical debate.
B. The examples--Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-86), Catherine the Great of Russia (1762-96), Joseph II of Austria (ruled Austria 1780-90, Holy Roman Empire 1765-90).
C. More or less common attitudes and programs, though how effectual varies greatly.

1. Enjoy the intellectual life.
2. Greatest reforms in law codes.
3. Abolition of torture, improvement of conditions of peasantry, Joseph´s abolition of serfdom.
4. Joseph´s decree of religious toleration to Jews.
5. Extension of the state.
6. Greater control over church.
7. Enhancement of state also via war.