This text outline omits illustrations.

Reference Material on Latin America (F1401, 6)

• Handbook of Latin American Studies, 1935-. WREF F1401 .H3x also on CDROM.

• Hispanic American Periodical Index, 1970-. WREF qF1401 .H5x

• The Cambridge History of Latin America, 12 vols. WREF F1410 .C1834

• Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, 5 vols. (1996) WREF qF1406 .E53

Latin America: Other

• Hispanic American Historical Review Wils Per.

• Journal of Latin American Studies Wils Per.

• Latin American Research Review Wils Per.

• (The) Americas Wilson Periodicals

• Latin American History Web Page: http://h-net2.msu.edu/~latam/

• South American Handbook (best travel guide on South America), annual F1401 .S71

Shovel shaped incisors:genetictrait of Native Americans

Outline of lecture 9/30/97The Americas: a century before

• “Indian”: a misnomer, but does the term make any sense?

• The Imperial States: Commonalities between Nahuas (Aztecs) and Incas

• Distinctions

• Gender and the Nahuas

• Conclusions

“Indian”: misnomerand meaning 

• Misnomer:

  • geographical misconception by Europeans
  • indigenous peoples self perception

• Common, distinctive features

  • Isolated biosphere
  • Technology: based on stone and human power

PrehispanicTerracing in Cholca Valley (Peru): conserves water and sunlight

Ancient and modern terracing: Ollantaytambo (Peru)

Inca military outpost, storage depots, and terracing, overlooking Ollantaytambo

Inca terracing and irrigation(from Guaman Poma, La nueva crónica )

Planting potatoes

The Imperial States, Nahuas and Incas: Commonalities 

• Sedentary peoples

  • intensive agriculture
  • land controlled by hamlet (not individuals)

• “Provincial”-level organization

  • tribute (tax) collection
  • draft rotary labor: coatequitl (Nahua), mita

• Social organization: nobility, commoners, craftsmen, dependents, land

• Political expansion, the century before

Tribute paymentsprovince of Toluca,Codex Mendoza (1540)

Commonalities, social organization: nobility & commoners

• Nobility: distinguished by dress, work, control over resources, lineage

  • “You are of noble lineage…”
  • Land: “The lord (tlatoani) has lands in various places…”

• Commoners:

  • kin based groups: calpulli (Nahua), ayllu (Inca)
  • community lands

Montezuma’s advisors

Commonalities, social organization: craftsmen & dependents

• Craftsmen, traders, merchants:

• Dependents, outsiders, orphans, marginals, semi-aliens, conquered minorities

  • Nahua: macehualli
  • Inca: yanacona

• Slaves: only among the Nahua

Nahua craftsmen and their sons

Commonalities, social organization: Land

• Community based

  • Land, particularly most productive units, obtained through the community
  • Marginal lands exploited by family initiative
  • Fruits of land belonged to family
  • Taxes paid as family unit

• Nobles had private holdings

Commonalities, the century before: a period of political expansion

• Aztec and Inca “Empires” were relatively young, ~1-2 centuries

• Expansion was through warfare, or threat of war

• Hegemony justified by religious necessities

• Taxes were collected through provincial units

• Revolts by provinces were common

The founding of Tenochtitlan(depicted by native artist, Codex Mendoza 1540)

The expansion of Nahua hegemony

Templo Mayor, Tenochtitlan?

Differences

• Mesoamerican settlements were more nucleated; Andean, less

  • archipelago pattern in the Andes

• Crops: shared maize, chiles and cotton

  • Mesoamerica: cacao
  • Andes: potatoes, coca, llamas

• Technology: Andes, use of silver

• Cultural achievements: Mesoamerica, writing systems; Andes, quipus

Inca Roads, ~1500:Quito (Ecuador) to Cuzco (Peru) and Santiago (Chile)(areas studied are marked by hatching)

Remains of Inca Roads, near Huanaco (inland from Lima)

Inca Trail near Machu Picchu

Hikers climb a steep section on the Ollantaytambo- Machu Picchu Trail(fourth and final day)

Machu Picchu 2570 metersabove sealevel

Machu Picchu:noble retreat or another island in a microclimate archipelago?

PPT Slide

PPT Slide

Machu PicchuTerracing facing the North to catch the sun’s rays

Inca Temple of the Sun (Corincancha) at Cuzco. Spaniards built a church over the original masonry.

Quipu:knotted cord mnemonics helped administrators(from Guaman Poma display in National Museum, Lima)

Debate: Condition of Nahua Women

• Leon-Portilla: prominent and of great social recognition

• Rodriguez-Shadow: devalued and dominated

• Kellogg: gender parallelism: complementary and symmetrical

The naming ceremony began at sunrise… and concluded with a banquet

Then she raised it as an offering in the four directions; then she lifted it up, she raised it as an offering to the heavens.

Earthly Names Ceremony differs for boys and girls

Boys waitingto snatch the umbilical cord offering and eat it.

Lessons in gender begin at a tender age (5/6 years old--Codex Mendoza)

Museo de Antropología, Mexico City: “Here is the home of one...named…Cuilol”.

Transcribed by Cline

…and translated

4 most common names for each sex. What are the differences?

Females

• Teyacapan 315 (First one)

• Tlaco 182(Middle one)

• Teicuh 182(Second one)

• Necahual 151(Quiet one)

Males

• Yaotl 74(Rival/Enemy)

• Matlalihuitl 63(Rich Feather)

• Nochhuetl 52(Ideal Bean)

• Coatl 48(Serpent)

1201 females

87 unique names

1303 males

574 unique names

PPT Slide

Common Male NamesNote low frequency of most names

Conclusions: Earthly Names of Ordinary People

• Male names: individualized, symbolic, diverse

• Female names: categorical, birth order, boring

• Gender relations: asymmetrical, trapezoidal, hierarchal, patriarchal

Nahua Gender Relations: patriarchy, assymetry, oppression

• Division of Labor: strongly gendered

• Households: only males are heads

• Average age at marriage: girls: less than 13 yearsboys: greater than 19 years

• Widowhood: a female matter

• Division of Names: gender inviolate

End

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