Background: Heian, Kamakura military government, Muromachi military government, Warring States period, Recurring themes—The power behind the throne rather than replacing the throne. A government within the government.
Oda Nobunaga: Entered Kyoto 1568 supporting the last Muromachi shogun and as protector of the emperor. Separation of warriors from non-warriors and collection of swords begun. Destroyed military and political power of religious sects and non-warrior political rivals.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi: Rose from humble origins. Cadastral surveys and re-distribution of land begun. Imperial pretensions—invaded Korea on his way to attack Ming China. Died of old age thus ending the second invasion.
Tokugawa Ieyasu: establish power: Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Battle of Osaka 1615. Named shogun 1603—court titles for daimyo, marriage alliance. Eliminate rivals—opposing daimyo, inconvenient kin. Succession rules—primogeniture, concubines, 3 related houses. Guardian of the state, protector of the people
Controlling the Daimyo: Opposing daimyo deposed—domains confiscated and redistributed. Remaining daimyo—allied daimyo called tozama and new daimyo called fudai. Domains—land-tax income, limited political rights, subject to transfer or confiscation by shogun. Alternate attendance and hostage system—sankin kotai. Focus on arts and letters to be good civil servants as well as military ability.
Further Political Controls: Castle limits—only one castle and castle town per domain, the 3 (4) cities under direct Tokugawa control. Ships, foreign trade and travel—ships to be limited to one mast, foreign travel and migration prohibited, foreign trade a Tokugawa monopoly. Christianity banned—annual investigations of population, religion and cadastre. Standardization of measures
Land tax: Land throughout Japan was measured and graded for productive quality. Tax paid as a percentage of the estimated yield of rice crop. Land assigned to and taxes levied upon villages, not households. Titled peasants as holding the rights and responsibilities for a portion of the land and tax of their villages. Based partly on the assumption of continuous expansion and development.
Rigidity and flexibility: Warriors to live in castle towns on stipends paid from the tax levied on the peasants of the domain. Ideology of 4 classes—warriors, peasants, artisans and merchants. Reality of 2 classes—warriors (strict), and everyone else (flexible). Villages given autonomy for village matters.
Urbanization, commercialization: Warrior class = 20% of population, all required to live in towns supplying their needs using their stipends in the market. Commercial crops, manufacturing and protoindustry to supply the markets. Commercial and protoindustrial networks, transportation and communication, regional specialties. Development of urban culture and national culture.
Tokugawa Political Power: Control the daimyo—focus on allied daimyo and trust to new daimyo. New daimyo (fudai) in bureaucracy—4-5 senior councillors, 4-5 junior councillors, numerous civil officials and bureaucrats. Shogun direct control>> shogun control through chamberlain>> chamberlain control instead of shogun>> control by senior councillor.
Tokugawa Political Issues: Political power—maintaining it in Tokugawa house, controlling daimyo and vassals. Hierarchy, heredity and capability issues in government. Finances and economics. Judicial and legal system. Social change.
Tokugawa Reforms: Genroku reforms (Tsunayoshi)—perfect
Confucian Buddhist society, bypass heredity for capability
Kyoho reforms (Yoshimune)—Intelligence, currency, judicial procedures,
civil office based on talent, restrict luxuries.
Kansei reforms (Matsudaira Sadanobu)—rebuild social system, restore morale,
revive economy: education, agriculture, poor relief.
Tokugawa Economics: 17th century—agricultural expansion, new businesses, new industries, commercial expansion with urbanization. 1700 Edo is largest city in the world with population of around 1 million. 18th century—”Industrious Revolution”, wage labor (contract and casual) as common, mixture of classes, negotiation between daimyo and peasants over taxes, income and labor. Protoindustry—discouraged>>encouraged.
Tokugawa Society: Rich peasants investing in manufacturing and commerce. Differences between rich and poor peasants shrink in many villages—corporate village structures. Differences between merchants, artisans, peasants and others blurring. Underclass called eta hinin living in segregated communities called buraku. National networks—commercial, social. Spread of craft skills and basic literacy and education.
Tokugawa Culture: Bushido—social and ideological control of warrior class. Urban cosmopolitan culture—literature, theater, music, arts, intellectual discussion. Theater as a medium for social commentary slightly limited by censorship. Urban culture and information spread to countryside through social and commercial networks.
Tokugawa in the 19th century: Social contradiction—the
poverty of the political elite and the affluence of the non-elite.
Efforts by political authorities at all levels to increase income and their
failure. Industrial craft and commercial expansion. Agricultural trouble. The
frustrations of the middle level of the warrior-class hierarchy—Highly
educated, highly competitive, poorly paid.
Tokugawa Economic Change: Wage labor and casual labor—new support for industrial development Beginning of the separation of household and business in family firms—but only the beginning. Live-in employees still the rule Poorest regions becoming more affluent as they join the commercial and manufacturing network
Western Approaches: Russia--1792 Adam Laxman requested commercial relations. 1804,Nikolai Rezanov, both refused. Russia lost interest (Napoleonic Wars). Dutch isolated in Nagasaki for a while and hire ships of “neutral” countries to run supplies—USA, etc. British attempt to take Dutch outpost in Nagasaki (1808). Japanese start asking questions of the Dutch.
Japan’s Response: 1825 order that foreign vessels should be driven away without hesitation. 1842 If foreign vessels are damaged and come seeking food, fuel or water, then provide these necessities and see them off. 1853 Perry came in steamship with objective to secure coal supplies and coaling stations for steamships. 1854 “General Convention of Peace and Amity” opened 2 ports, assured safe treatment of shipwrecked sailors and granted “most favored nation” to USA. Soon followed by similar treaties with British and Russians.
1857-8 2nd Opium War: US Consul-General used threats of British naval power and the prospect of forced opium trade to extract a broader treaty: Prohibited opium imports, but allowed other trade. Diplomatic and consular agents in Edo and 3 more ports. Expanded travel privileges in Japan. Foreigners permitted to practice Christianity. Extra-territoriality. Tariff levels to be no higher than those negotiated for other governments.
Effect of new treaty: 1840s domestic debate favored driving foreigners away, but consensus that defenses must be upgraded first. The new concessions discredited the consensus. Charges of incompetence, demands for changes in leadership, assassination plots and counterplots. Uncontrolled and violent activism by lesser (mid level) young warriors after 1860 escalating tensions and violence and assassinations. Daimyo, court and Tokugawa government crackdown brought a return to order 1865. Confusion and policy reversals, recurring conflicts with foreigners generated concern and crises.
Foreign Aggression: 1862 Russian effort to seize Tsushima. 1863 British prepared to bombard Edo and assaulted Satsuma. 1864 a joint bombardment of Choshu. 1865 an allied armada was deployed to Osaka Bay with an invasion force intending to march on Kyoto and extract concessions from the imperial court. Meanwhile, Tokugawa leaders learned new weapons technology, reorganized their armed forces adopting new forms of weaponry and warfare and accepted the presence of common soldiers. This undermined samurai support for their leaders and destabilized the former balance of military power.
Fiscal ramifications: Foreign pressure spurred the Tokugawa regime and the daimyo to spend huge sums on military training and deployment and on weapons purchase, production and placement. The foreigners, of course, demanded huge indemnities for various slights and injuries. The government agreed to end the daimyo hostage system to free up funds for daimyo defense. All squeezed all sources of income. An alarming amount of specie (gold and silver) flowed out of the country. Foreign commerce also changed domestic trade flows.
Warrior class upside down: 1865 vassals of Choshu domain revolted and took over the domain government. Then began re-organizing it to a more effective military force to challenge Tokugawa control. 1866 politics devolved to inter-domainal contest for supremacy with Satsuma, Choshu and Tosa against the Central regime with some supporting domains. They accused that the central government proposed to “rely on foreigners, abolish the emperor and daimyo, establish a centralized system and make the shogun the presiding executive of the realm with the administration based on talent.” (They saw this as a threat) Actually, this was one proposal.
Sat-Cho vs Tokugawa conflict: Government leaders pursued internal reforms to modernize the armed forces and reorganize the political structure as a centralized European style regime forging close links with French merchants and diplomats. Satsuma and Choshu leaders also purchased weapons, trained troops and deepened their ties to British merchants and diplomats while nevertheless keeping the “Revere the emperor, expel the barbarians” rhetoric. 1868 Satsuma-Choshu forces fought Tokugawa forces for 4 days near Kyoto. The Sat-Cho side won. Other dispersed battles with other domains fought, but by summer 1869 the country was under new leadership. Public opinion—impatience and skepticism.
Fall of the Tokugawa Regime: Foreign approaches put pressure
on a failing system. Other factors—fiscal bankruptcy.
Disparities between economic and political power. Disparities between capability,
heredity and power—frustrations of mid-level warriors. Tensions between
Tokugawa and rivals.
Tokugawa legacy for Meiji success: Nationwide class of literate,
disciplined people trained in the ideal of dutiful service for the public good
that was under-utilized->recruitment of competent and reliable administrators
for new bureaucracy
Arable land was already in the hands of the farmers rather than an urban ruling
class or a plantation elite—no need for redistribution. Restrictions now
removed on agricultural, handicraft and industrial development that had already
been underway. Familiar with wage labor and its structures. Structural framework
for industrial society not radically different.
Japan defining its borders: Treaties to define and protect
borders, legitimacy. Hokkaido and Kurile Islands 1869, 1875
Russia—Japanese fishing villages on Kuriles, strategic concerns, Sakhalin
Ainu—Tokugawa diplomatic relations, Meiji policies based on US advice,
jobless/landless former samurai. Ryukyu (Okinawa) 1871, 1879—vassal state
of Ming/Qing China, secretly also vassal of Satsuma domain, Tokugawa-China trade
and contact regulated through Ryukyu. Formosa/Taiwan 1871, 1874—50 Ryukyu
sailors massacred, no response from Qing, Japan considered sailors to be Japanese,
force sent to Taiwan. (see map)
Taewon’gun Restoration (Korea): Enhance royal authority at the expense of the lineages and in-law families previously in power. Appoint high officials by personal merit, not regional background or factions. Death penalty for private use of tax money. Various tax laws—reduce yangban power, increase yangban tax responsibility, reduce peasant tax burden, increase state revenue. Upgrade military defense. No fundamental changes in the system, but the reforms brought great opposition from the yangban who deposed him in 1873.
Foreign approaches to Korea: English merchant ships 1832. French warships 1846. Armed Russian ships 1854. American trading ship 1866. Korea was aware of the 2 Opium Wars and rejected Western demands believing an isolationist policy would protect Korea from China’s fate. Successfully repelled above approaches. Anti-Catholic campaign 1866->French attacked and seized Kanghwa Island, but beaten back. American attack 1871 capturing forts on Kanghwa, but repelled. Policy changed to open door after Taewon’gun retired 1873. (see map)
Korea-Japan Treaty: Unyo Incident 1875—Japanese vessel fired on off coast of Kanghwa. Japan demanded treaty 1876—Kuroda Kiyotaka with 3 warships and 800 soldiers. Treaty of Kanghwa Korea as a sovereign nation equal to Japan. 3 ports open. Japan allowed to survey Korean coastal waters. Japanese settlements in ports with extraterritoriality and economic privileges to Japanese merchants in Korea.
Japan’s attitude to Korea and China: Strong Korea as crucial to Japanese defense against Russia and Britain—trans-Siberian railway. Worries about Social Darwinism in the West. Japan should encourage Asian neighbors to reform themselves to withstand West. If they refuse, Japan should force them to reform.
Japan-Korea Economics: 1877-1893 value of Japanese commodities shipped to Korea increased fourfold. Japanese traders purchased 90% of Korean exports of rice and soybeans. 1894 Japan considering ways to develop Korean economy to Japanese benefit—coal mines, lay telegraph lines, build Pusan-Seoul railroad.
Self-Strengthening in Korea: 1876 envoy sent to observe Japanese methods of modernization 1879 Li Hongzhang urged Korea to emulate China’s self-strengthening policies. 1880 Japanese legation established in Seoul. Korean envoy to Japan returned with 2 treatises: 1) by Chinese legation official in Tokyo—Korea must adopt Western institutions and technology and tolerate Protestantism. Keep close friendship with China, treaty ties with Japan and diplomatic alliance with US. 2) by Chinese comprador thinker—China must adopt Western political and other institutions to succeed. Korea established diplomatic ties with US.
Korean Reforms: 1881 Established Office for the Management of State Affairs (Chinese model). Reform the military: special skills force of 80 cadets with Japanese instructor. 12 officials sent to study in Japan: Japanese modernization, institutions, etc. 38 students and artisans sent for training mission to China: weapons manufacture and military sciences. 1882 Korea-US treaty—anti-Christian movement in Korea, Li Hongzhan as mediator.
1882 Soldier’s Riot: The problem: Old line military
units ignored and didn’t receive pay or rations until late. When supplies
came to pay them, the clerks embezzled. Soldiers assaulted the clerks, the leaders
were arrested and sentenced.
The reaction: The unit plotted with Taewon’gun. Attacked and broke comrades
out of prison. Then they murdered the Japanese training officer with the new
unit, attacked the Japanese legation and invaded the palace, killing the officials
and looking for Queen Min. Consequence: The Japanese minister escaped. He returned
from Japan with military and naval force (800) demanding reparations for damages.
Chinese military contingents also showed in greater number (4500). Taewon’gun
taken to Tientsin. New treaty with Japan allowing 1 company of troops to guard
Japanese legation in Seoul.
China and Korea: Qing began to interfere in Korean internal
affairs—claims of suzerainty. Prussian and Chinese advisers.
New military force under Chinese general Yuan Shikai. Qing expanded economic
interest in Korea. Chinese merchants gained right to reside, conduct business
and travel freely. Chinese office to promote Chinese penetration in Korean markets.
Enlightenment re-established (Anti-China).
Enlightenment Reforms in Korea: Eastern ways and Western machines. Egalitarian—abolish class distinctions a la Meiji and achieve independence from China 1882 40 students sent to Japan—military and technology. 1883 Postal Service and new army unit. Asked Japan for a loan for new unit, but refused. Min clan opposed these reforms and blocked necessary appointments.
1884 Attempted Coup: Plan to use conflict between France and
China to drive China out. Asked for support from US (denied). Asked also from
Japanese legation (less than 200 troops as compared to China 1500 soldiers).
Coup leaders told king that Chinese troops were creating a disturbance and requested
summon Japanese legation guards for protection.
Summoned commanders and senior officials one by one and killed them. Reform
program—bring back Taewon’gun, end ties to China, reduce Yangban
privilege, officials by merit, central control of government in state council.
Chinese troops took action and Japanese troops retreated. The leaders escaped
to Japan. Japan proposed simultaneous withdrawal of Chinese and Japanese troops
negotiated with Li Hongzhan 1885.
Chinese Influence in Korea: 1885 Li Hongzhan selected Yuan Shikai as “Director General Resident in Korea of Diplomatic and Commercial Relations”. Mission: Prevent future political disturbance or diplomatic development harmful to Chinese interests. Use influence to destroy power of Japanese traders in Korea. Yuan increased Chinese commercial activity at the expense of both Japanese and Korean merchants. Interference damaged Korea’s “Self-strengthening” movement removing reform minded officials. Enlightenment projects abandoned.
Western Influence in Korea: Russian representative in Seoul after 1884. Pro-Russian sentiment increased. Prussian adviser felt Russian presence would balance the China vs. Japan rivalry. Britain alarmed at Russian influence in Korea and took Komundo port from Korea. Russia also planned to occupy Korean territory. China brought in American adviser. Korea-France treaty 1886. Russo-Korea Overland Trade Agreement 1888. Yuan Shikai tightened Chinese control over Korea—political power to pro-China members of Min lineage, many of whom were incompetent and corrupt. Popular discontent grew. 1890s popular uprisings against Min government and resurrection of Eastern Learning (Tonghak) movement.
Sino-Japanese War: 1894 uprising to destroy corrupt Min and drive Japanese away crushed the government troops in Kobu county. Battalion sent and routed. Korean government appealed to China for military support—China responded, but Japan also sent troops. Chinese and Japanese troops faced off. Japan proposed that Japan and China jointly reform Korea’s internal administration. China rejected the proposal—Sino-Japanese War. Japan took royal residence and engaged Chinese troops. Japanese victory in 1895. Treaty—Korea as independent state. Liaodong Peninsula and Taiwan to Japan. Korea secured in writing that Japan had no territorial ambitions in Korea.
Treaty of Shimonoseki 1895: Full and complete independence and autonomy of Korea. Japan receives Liaodong peninsula, Taiwan and Pescadores islands. War indemnity. Open 4 new treaty ports. Japanese commercial privileges—navigate upper Yangzi, import machinery, manufacture in China.(see map)
Aftermath of Sino-Japanese War for Japan: 1894 Great Britain—end of segregated enclave settlements. End to extraterritoriality in a few years, but not yet. 1897 other treaty powers—similar to Britain and agreed Japanese tariff autonomy with complete equal relations by 1911.
(The following lecture was not included as part of the quiz, but belongs with this segment).
Hanga ( Prints): Hanga developed to a fine art during the Tokugawa period. 17th century Tosa Mitsuoki. 18th century Harunobu. Hokusai.
Hokusai: Volume 8, 1st month 1818: Faces. Fat people. Skinny people. Volume 10, Spring 1819: Songoku, (“Dragon Ball” hero). Strange things. Party games and entertainments
Meiji Hanga: Kobayashi Kiyochika, Daiichi Ginko in snow, 1876. Kamei Shiichi, Tokyo Geiko Masako (stone print), 1877. Kobayashi Kiyochika, Ryogoku after a fire, 1881. Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, The tale of Otomi Yosaburo, 1885. Nomura Yoshikuni, Osaka castle in wind, 1885. Kouda Kiyoshi, Volcanic Eruption, Tokyo Asahi Newspaper, 1888.
Meiji Paintings: Takahashi Yuichi, Oiran, 1872. Kawanabe Keisai, Yamamba, 1884. Harada Naojiro, Kutsuya no Oyaji, 1886. Kuroda Kiyoteru, Maiko, 1894.
Takamura Koun, 1852-1934: The Dragon King of the Sea, 1879-1881.(Domestic Industrial Exposition, for the foreign market.) Old Monkey, 1893. (International Exposition, Chicago, Palace of Fine Arts). Kusunoki Masashige, 1900. (Commissioned by Sumitomo family to mark 200th anniversary of Besshi copper mines).
Architecture: Daiichi Ginko, Central Post Office, Matsumoto Primary School.
Kyoto in the Early Meiji Period: Kyoto Hotel, 1871. Gion, 2 pictures, 1875 and later. Gion festival, Niwatori Hoko, Meiji and Modern. Yoshida 1889. Shimogamo shrine, 1890.
Notation: Traditional music was not measured and could not easily be written using Western notation methods. Challenge—to develop a method for written music that retains the traditional characteristics. Shamisen schools developed one method, the koto developed another.
Tokiwazu School Notation: The
following slides show the music for a portion of a tale, a “katari”
of the Tokiwazu school. The numbers in western and Japanese characters represent
the notes played by the shamisen. The words are for the singer/narrator and
do not have a notation, although schools vary on this.
