Kami: “Anything whatsoever which is out of the ordinary, which possesses superior power or which is awe inspiring are called kami. Eminence here does not merely refer to the superiority of nobility, good new or meritorious deeds. Evil and mysterious things, if they are extraordinary and dreadful, are also called kami.”
Shinto: Rites are ways to placate or manipulate kami to the benefit of individual or group. Belief in the power of sprit to affect the material world—including the spirits of both living and dead. Living individuals can affect the world, even without conscious effort or even knowledge that we are doing so, through strong emotions. Rites can be used for negative effects as well—witchcraft. Witchcraft rites and the importance of identification—names and resonances. Voodoo style rites of cursing. Kami are not expected to be good, just powerful!! The resentments of political losers were seen as dangerous to the state.
Tenmu: Fought a war with his nephew to take the throne in 671. Avoided conflict with Silla and maintained peaceful relations with continental powers. Consolidated control of Japan and the uji. Supported both Shinto and Buddhist institutions. Addressed the rules for succession to the throne. Governed from a simple headquarters—no capital city.
Jito: Tenmu’s widow and Tenji’s daughter. Succession skipped her son. Built a new capital called Fujiwara Kyo near Nara 694. Modulated cycles of violence in the imperial family and maintained stability. Taiho legal code of 702 based on the Tang code. Official histories begun: Kojiki 712, Nihon Shoki 720. Fujiwara family as historians.
Genmei-Gensho: Succession went from Jito to grandson
Monmu and then to Jito’s sister and daughter-in-law, Genmei.
She built the Nara capital Heijo Initiated surveys of the realm—localities,
their deities, local customs, resources and special products. Abdicated for
her mature daughter Gensho 715. Numerous adjustments made to Taiho code. New
Yoro code reflecting changes announced in 718. From 719, Gensho included her
brother Shomu in her decisions and abdicated in his favor in 724.
Shomu: Devout Buddhist . Extended the military power of the state over all of Honshu. 730s Kinai region suffered from smallpox epidemic. Rebellion of Fujiwara no Hirotsugu in Dazaifu suppressed by military force. Shomu died 756. Daughter became emperors Koken and later Emperor Shotoku (vicious factional fighting). Factional fighting controlled under Kanmu 781. Kanmu moved the capital to Kyoto 794.
Nara Buddhism: Esoteric Buddhism easily adapted
to the Shinto world-view. Tendai and Shingon sects. Ganjin and Kukai.
Response to smallpox epidemic—Buddhist scriptures read at court and in
provinces, austerities, Shinto shrine rituals, construction of more religious
structures. Response to rebellion—military force, statues of Kannon, scriptures
read. Commanding general also paid respects to local shrine to Hachiman in Kyushu.
Later Todaiji temple built. Complex includes small shrine to Kyushu kami Hachiman
and shrine priestess came to dedication.
Administration: Jingikan (Shinto rituals of state) and Dajokan—council of state including prime minister, ministers of left and right, some councilors= emperor’s advisory council. Senior officials linked dajokan to 8 ministries. Metropolitan offices. Kokufu—administrative offices, storehouses, schools, military garrisons, religious institutions. Districts called kori—supervised various handicrafts, collected taxes, compiled registers. Hamlets and households—differences between reality of the people and administrative categories.
Capitals: Tended to move around until Nara—matrilineal, matrilocal family system. Fujiwara Kyo, Heijo Kyo (in Nara) and Heian Kyo (in Kyoto) modeled after Changan and Loyang in China. When Kanmu built Heian Kyo (Kyoto), he moved the capital to territory controlled by his mother’s uji, rumored to have been Korean.
Overview: 750-850—emperors dominate. Changes in military and administration . 850-1050—Fujiwara regents dominate. Development of private estate rights to revenue. 1050-1150—retired emperors dominate. Alliance between warrior lineages and court factions. 1150-1180—rise of the political power of warrior lineages. 1180—the Gempei civil wars and transition to the Kamakura military government.
750-850: Emperor Kanmu moves to Heian in 794 (starvation protest of Kanmu's rival). Kanmu and Saga—temple construction, Tendai and Shingon sects to balance and reduce the power of Nara Buddhism. Cultural contacts with China. Changes in administrative procedure. Reformed military organization and defeat the Emishi in the north. Fujiwara family broke into several rival clusters of lineages.
Military system before 750: No standing army—militia, not garrisons. The emperor and the court had exclusive right to control the military resources of the state. Military service was a duty required of all able-bodied male subjects—units were manned primarily by peasants, but provincial elite also served as officers, capital guards, etc. The martial arts privately developed by the provincial elite were vital.
Military Problems and Developments: Enforcing conscription was difficult—peasant efforts to evade tax and military service became a major problem by 750. The premier military technology was cavalry, especially mounted archery, and was key for suppression of rebellions such as that of Fujiwara no Hirotsugu in 740. Horses were expensive and fighting from horseback was a complex skill requiring years of training and practice. By the mid 8th century, foreign and domestic threats were gone and people forgot how to use some of the important defensive weapons like the oyumi. Provincial regiments were not effective units for police functions chasing bandits, so provincial units with artillery were unnecessary. Small, highly mobile squads that could be assembled quickly and sent after bandits were best and the court focused on this need.
Response and Reforms 750-850: Regiments, officers and soldiers were reduced nationwide and eliminated in the smallest provinces. Recruitment focused on those with cavalry skills or combat experience (788). Regiments were abolished from all but frontier or border provinces (792). Private cultivation of martial skills was actively encouraged and exploited by government military policy and premier noble houses of the court. The state shifted to reliance on the privately acquired martial skills of the provincial elite and the lower ranks of the court nobility.
Fujiwara Regents 850-1050: Emperor Seiwa came to the throne at the age of 9. His grandfather, Fujiwara Yoshifusa, became his supervisor in 858 and official regent or sessho ?? in 860. Yoshifusa arranged for his son Mototsune to take over as regent and Mototsune continued as regent kampaku ?? even after Seiwa became an adult. This is called the sekkanke system or the Fujiwara regency.
Sekkanke System: Child emperor given a Fujiwara daughter as consort. Young emperor eased into retirement as soon as a successor was available. No more empresses—women less easily dominated. The regents control the government and important government posts go to members of the Fujiwara sekkanke lineage.
Sugawara no Michizane: Emporer Uda tried to take control of the dajokan Council of State. He promoted provincial official and scholar Sugawara no Michizane to the ranks of the dajokan. Uda also managed to name a son who was not related to the Fujiwara family as crown prince and insisted that Michizane and the Fujiwara leader share supervision. The young emperor was persuaded that Michizane was working against him and Michizane was exiled to the Dazaifu. Kitano Tenjin at Kitano Tenmangu shrine.
Changes in Taxation: Abandon statutory land allotment system—land taxes become per capita taxes. Acceptance of private landed proprietorships and their growth. Attempt to limit the expansion of tax-exempt land within the private estates in return for increased exemptions. Provincial governments as quasi-autonomous entities with contractual tax obligations to the central government.
Stratification: Competition for wealth between princes, provincial governors, religious institutions and court officials. Political power stratified in 3 groups—court aristocrats, lower and mid-level nobles (including provincial governors), rural elite. Each had specific rights to government posts, rights over land, and to forms of income. No mobility between groups—vertical alliances.
Shoen, Private estates: Layers of private rights to land revenue formed through vertical alliances between provincial elite, provincial governors and court nobles. Provincial elite would contrive to convert special rights to public land into private rights. Negotiate to have the land declared a private estate, perhaps by donation to a temple or shrine related to a great family. The new owner would confirm the local magnate’s rights to revenue from the estate. Taxes previously forwarded to the government would be paid to the new owner.
Military Change under Regents: In the 9th century, martially adept provincial residents—usually members of the provincial elite—turned to banditry either in addition or as an alternative to public service. Agents of great families, temples and shrines, and government officials also formed bands. Provincial officials added private militias to their authority in defense, but also greed. Many were superlative warriors themselves. Seiwa Genji became known as a warrior house and affiliated with the Fujiwara sekkanke. Kanmu Heishi also became known as a warrior house, but not powerful until Fujiwara regents lost ascendancy.
Rebellions: Taira no Masakado—took over the provincial governments of several provinces and declared himself emperor in 939. Defeated by cousin Taira no Sadamori in 940. Fujiwara no Sumitomo, a provincial official, turned pirate 939. Petition of district magistrates and farmers of Owari province against governor for gross misconduct.
Retired Emperors 1050-1150: In the Nara period, Jito and Genmei retired early and used their power to oversee politics from behind the scenes. Later retired emperors made use of this legacy. Mature Go-Sanjo became emperor in 1068. He energetically reasserted imperial power and trimmed power of the regents. Son Shirakawa took throne at age 20, pitted rival Fujiwara leaders against each other and appointed officials from other lineages. After retirement, Shirakawa expanded retired emperor’s office called insei ?? and increased shoen holdings. Shirakawa’s grandson Go-Shirakawa lost control and the Gempei civil war began the transition to the Kamakura period 1180s.
Heian Literature: Sei Shonagon, The Pillow Book 1002. Murasaki Shikibu, The Tale of Genji 1020. Tales of Ise. Tosa Diary 935. The tale of Ochikubo (Cinderella plus revenge). Native literature as women's literature. Men write in Chinese.
Kegare: Kegare is a kind of spiritual pollution that accrues when in contact with dead things. Kegare can be reduced through various rites of purification and general rites took place on the last day of the year and midsummer. Certain professions had powerful and sacred overtones because of their role in cleansing kegare: monks who say funerals, medical monks, gardeners, street cleaners, tanners, weapon makers, grave diggers. Many of these professions had close ties to the imperial household and to the court nobility.
NE Asia Non-Chinese States: Uighur (744-840)—allies of the Tang. Kirghiz (840-924)—replaced the Uighurs who then migrated to Kansu (Gansu). Khitan-Liao (907-1125)—replaced the Kirghiz in Manchuria and northeast China. Jurchen-Jin (1115-1234)—another Manchurian group that replaced the Khitan and unified north China as Jin. Tangut-Xia (990-1227)—small northwest state with ties to Tibet, Central Asia and Mongolian tribes.
Khitan Liao 907-1125: Khitan tribes unified in
907, expelled Kirghiz from north Gobi and annexed Po-hai in Manchuria.
Sinicized Turks established Later Tang kingdom in North China, battled Liang
kingdom in North China—refugees came to Khitan lands. Liao developed dual
administrative system—Chinese and tribal organizations. Assisted establishment
of Jin kingdom in China 936. Rewarded with 16 counties combined with own lands
as Liao kingdom. Liao took Jin and expanded south including Hopei province.
Jurchen-Jin 1125-1234: Khitan-Liao fell to Tungus tribes called Jurchen who established Jurchen-Jin 1125. Jurchen-Jin conquered most of north China—Song pushed south of the Yangtze. Jurchen’s more Sinicized that Khitan and followed traditional relations with nomad neighbors. Chinggis Qan unified Mongols 1207 and followed usual raid, trade, persuade tactics with Jurchen-Jin.
Hsia (Xia) 1038-1227: Some Chinese influence, but native traditions strong and Buddhism stronger than Chinese thought. Balance of power between Song, Jin and Xia. Xia largely ignored. More ties west than east, especially Tibet. Cooperated with Chinggis Qan, but later in conflict with him.
Tibet: Last Tibetan king contemporaneous to Tang China died 842. He persecuted Buddhism nearly to extinction. Tibet broke up into several princedoms and abandoned Buddhism. 1042 Indian Buddhist teacher came and worked to restore Buddhism there. Several powerful monasteries established by 1070.
Chinese Kingdoms in North: Tsin (895-923) in Shanxi. Later Liang (907-923) at Kai-feng. Later Tang (923-936) at Kai-feng. Later Tsin (936-946) at Kai-feng. Later Han (947-950) at Kai-feng. Later Chou (951-960) at Kai-feng—unified all of north China except Shanxi. Northern Han (951-979) in Shanxi. Northern Sung (960-1126) at Kai-feng. Northern Chou—abandoned land under cultivation, military colonies, tax revision, canals and dykes. (see map)
Song Events: Song founded 960, finished uniting China 979. Vietnam independent 968. Reforms by Wang An-shih (1021-1086) opposed and repealed by conservatives led by Sima Guang and Shao Yung in 1085. Song retreated south of the lower Yangtze 1126. New capital at Hangchow 1127.
Administrative Institutions: Council of State—5-9 members chaired by the emperor. Always heard numerous opinions and decisions taken only after discussion of differing opinions. Court of Academicians—office for drawing up official documents. Some members were also council members. 3 services—task of listening to the opinions, suggestions and complaints of civil servants and ordinary citizens. Independent of each other and enjoyed complete immunity.
3 large departments: Economy and finance—state monopolies, the budget and population. Military. Secretariat—administration of justice and personnel management (recruiting competitions, appointments and promotions).
Special characteristics: Nervous system of information,
control and command extending to remote parts of the Song empire.
Civil service so strong that the prime minister was more important than the
emperor. (Reforms of 1078-1085). Multiplication of services dealing with economic
issues—state revenue largely came from commercial and industrial sources.
Efficiency of the system for recruitment and promotion of civil servants.
Reform movement: Against stockpiling and for price controls. Changed the rules for the transfer of taxes. Authorized the conversion of corvee to tax. Low interest state loans with offices for loans on security Improvements in irrigation and rice technology. Public schools. Orphanages, hospices, hospitals, dispensaries, public cemeteries, reserve granaries.
Military: Most resources late 10th to late 13th centuries devoted to war. Absolute supremacy of civilian control over military power. Army consisted largely of mercenaries—profession for specialists. Recruited from the footloose and rootless, convicts with amnesties, and aboriginal tribes of the south. Overmanned and inefficient. Effectiveness declined as numbers grew. Lack of horses—weak in cavalry.
Military technology: Repeating crossbows. A kind of tank. Paraffin flame throwers. Explosives and firearms. Gunpowder first mentioned 1044. First used for smoke producing and incendiary qualities. Next as an explosive—grenades. Third as a propellant in a guiding tube using the principle of rockets.
Song society: Rice production—new techniques, new strains and land development producing surplus. Landlords and new urban class of affluent and educated literati. Tenants provided with lodgings, board, tools, seeds and animals. Increase in landless with no resources—tenants, laborers in craft and industries, military recruits. Urban floating population—shop assistants, workers in taverns, inns and tea houses, itinerant peddlars, entertainment and domestic service.
Song industries: Mining, metallurgy, ceramics, paper factories, printing, salt works. Textile producing plants—hemp, cotton, mulberry for silk worms. Tea production. Lacquer trees. Techniques for porcelain perfected in 12th century. Hydraulic machinery used for bellows. Explosives used in mining, production increased.
Economic developments: State imposed a flexible system of commercial taxes on shops, products and trade. The state also established state workshops and commercial enterprises run by civil servants. Developed also state monopolies. Private trade was far larger than the tax or the state enterprises. Foreign trade was also important—mainly luxuries.
Song technology: Maritime power. Chinese ships (junks) equipped with anchors, a rudder, drop-keel, capstans, canvas sails, rigid matting sails, pivoting sails, oars with automatic angle and pivot, watertight compartments, compass. Song cartography was world’s best. Woodblock printing—movable type also available, but not as cheap or convenient.
Song culture: Upper classes—literature, painting, calligraphy, collection of books and works of art, garden design, etc. Popular culture—literature, professional storytellers and jesters, actors of short mimed plays, musicians, singers, puppeteers, animal trainers, shadow theater, etc.
Printing and Books: First examples in late 8th
century Buddhist pictures with short texts. Movable type 1041-48. Not used much
in China. Korea, and other parts of East Asia not using Chinese scripts. Public
and private schools and libraries multiplied.
Major collections of texts, encyclopedias and inventories, historical works,
collections of notes, scientific treatises, local monographs, literary works,
etc. Universal geographic encyclopedia 979. 1st treatise on forensic medicine
1242. Scientific archaeology, critical tendencies in historical research, philology,
phonetics, botany, zoology, etc. Chinese development of algebra 11-13th centuries.
Silla: Tang recognition 735. Fell 935. Contradiction
between Tang administrative system and aristocratic nature of Silla society.
Feuds within ruling class. Weakened center. Rise of merchant class power. Private
estates.
Conflict in Silla: Ruling elite limited to the royal lineage which split into several feuding branches. Provincial elite emerged who were excluded from political power for lineage reasons. Two competing views of the state—strong central administration or weak center and strong aristocracy. Feuding branches of the royal lineage aligned with one or the other image of the state. Provincial elite also chose weak center with strong aristocracy version Peasants also revolted choosing the strong central government version. A new class of rich merchants also appeared—the elite traditionally discriminated against merchants.
Fall of Silla: Numerous revolts by peasants, rural elite, merchants, and rival branches of the royal lineage in alliance. Provincial estates also began to act like independent kingdoms. Two major rival states established by rebellious armies—Later Paekche and Koryo. Now a new group of 3 kingdoms. (See map)
Koryo: Later Paekche attacked Silla who asked for help from Koryo. Koryo then attacked Later Paekche. Silla submitted to Koryo and Later Paekche was defeated. Khitan took former kingdom of Palhae (Po-hai) and claimed its territory. Koryo attacked Khitan, negotiated, and after diplomatic maneuvering with Song, established and defended northern border at the Yalu River.
Koryo Problems: Koryo accomplished its expansion and defense through strengthening its military. This included also new technology from Song. Koryo also insisted (as did Song) on absolute civilian control of the military—the military was treated as servants or slaves. This led to revolts in the 12th century and the problems were not yet solved when the Mongols came.
Annam, Hoa-lu and Dai Viet: Vietnam was the Protectorate of Annam in the Tang empire. When Tang fell, local elite tried and failed to establish a monarchy. 960s peasant armies under Dinh Bo Linh established a kind of military state with headquarters at Hoa-lu (960s-1009). Ly Cong Uan was a Buddhist temple orphan. When an unpopular king died in 1009, he was commander of the palace guard. Became king in 1010 and moved the capital to Thang-long (modern Hanoi) and called the new kingdom Dai Viet.
Ly Phat Ma: Considered greatest of Vietnamese
kings. Devout Buddhist, but also patronized local cults.
Reorganized the administrative hierarchy and justice system of the state. Minh-dao
law book 1042—edicts aimed at increasing central control over human and
material resources of the state. Expeditions to Champa. Remainder of Ly dynasty—quest
for maritime power and trouble with Song.
Champa: 11th-15th centuries Cham kings located near modern city Qui Nhon. Cham capital identified as Vijaya sacked twice by Dai Viet in the 11th century. 12th century Khmer armies also occupied parts of Cham territories. Cham sacked Angkor 1177.
Cambodia (Angkor): 802 Jayavarman II proclaimed a universal monarch—beginning of Angkor. Yasovarman I was the first king to actually live at Angkor. Built 100 monasteries for monks worshiping the 3 chief deities: Siva, Vishnu and Buddha. Royal authority expressed through hierarchy that included priests. Royal power depended on personal ability rather than institutional structure of authority.
Angkor diplomacy: Angkor began to expand north and west in early 11th century. Angkor kings also challenged by other local powers, possibly the aristocracy that appeared in the 10th century. 12th century king dominated northern Chams and recruited them for campaigns against Dai Viet (unsuccessful). Had diplomatic relations with Song as a vassal promoting trade.
Nan Chao (Ta-Li): Thai kingdom located largely in Yunnan strongly influenced by China. Nan Chao sought marriage alliances with China and also kidnapped Chinese artisans. Princes of Nan Chao sent to study in China. Began drifting south perhaps around 10th century. First record of Thai in the peninsula is 11th century Cham inscription mentioning POWs from “Syam”. Migration accelerated during the 12th and 13th centuries as Nan Chao came to an end as an independent state.
Pagan (Bagan): First appears as a walled city in the mid 9th century on the Irwaddy River in northern Burma. Pagan as major polity begins with reign of Anawrahta 1044-1077. Conquest of Thaton brought infusion of Mon culture to Pagan. Pagan also entered the maritime trading network.
Look at these maps of Asia and see how they changed during this period. Can you identify the states picture?: 10th century, 11th century, 12th century, 13th century.
Background: Fujiwara regency 860-1050. Retired emperors (insei ??) 1068-1180. Go-Sanjo, Shirakawa, Toba. Shoen, kokugaryo, shiki, myoden, myoshu. Military skills and warrior lineages. Buddhist temples and warrior monks. The Taira or Heike. The Minamoto or Genji.
“Private” estates: Shoen: First gain control over corvee labor, then tax revenue, then land. Process: Steward or governor->priest. Temple is proprietor, priest is steward of record, land is tax free, original steward continues in same job. Tax->private revenue, some to the steward, some to temple, etc. kokugaryo= land taxed by the state. Shoen= private land. Shiki= layers of rights to the income of a piece of land. Myoshu= a tenant farmer who had lifetime rights to farming a piece of land (called a myoden), and even pass those rights to heirs, but did not actually own the land. Myoden were created by proprietors for tax assessment.
Warrior Elite: Scions of aristocratic lineages and provincial elites had trained as cavalry experts from the beginning. Land system broke down and both officials and rural elite perpetuate semi-legal and illegal abuses. Use military force for legal, semi-legal and illegal activities. All elite lineages participated in military arts, but some gained reputations as particularly skilled. Warrior monks. Taira and Minamoto lineages.
Taira Power: Taira no Kiyomori—leader of the Taira clan/lineage. Protégé of retired emperor Go-Shirakawa—from provincial official to high court rank to support GS policies. Taira kinsmen confirmed as provincial officials. Go-Shirakawa interfered between Kiyomori and clansmen. Taira clan deposed Go-Shirakawa in 1179 to end dependence upon retired emperors. Kiyomori then collected traditional ingredients of power—court rank, matrilineal ties to emperor, shoen estates. These had become obsolete.
Gempei Conflict: Taira no Kiyomori—court rank, matrilineal strategy of power. Minamoto no Yoritomo—provincial military success. Taira defeated by 1185. Yoritomo’s rivals destroyed by 1190. Hojo Masako—Yoritomo’s wife.
Establishing Kamakura Power: Yoritomo’s government established in east near modern Tokyo as a camp government within the central government, not replacing it. 2 men representing Kamakura government in each estate, public or private—shugo and jito. Provide military authority and judicial/police support to civilian officials. Retired emperor’s protest battle Shokyu no Ran. Go-Toba exiled.
Kamakura Military Government: Military governor shugo—military force and local criminal courts. Joei Code of 1232, Goseibai Shikimoku—procedures for litigation. Accusation and rebuttal, questionnaires and subpoenas, critical analysis of documents (recognize forgery and fraud), witnesses. Military land steward jito—tax/revenue collection, land supervision, settlement of land disputes. High court and other functions remained with central government.
New Buddhist Sects: Belief that the end of the world is at hand—mappo shiso, focus on hell. Salvation by total reliance upon Buddha, scriptures, or Buddhist doctrines of meditation. Nembutsu (Praise to the Amida Buddha) “Namu amida butsu” (Monks Honen and Shinran). Praise to the Lotus Sutra: “Namu myo ho renge kyo” (Nichiren) use of mandala. Rinzai Zen—nembutsu, esotericism, tea, Neo-Confucian thought. Soto Zen—Zazen meditation, authority of scriptures, salvation of women.
The End of the Kamakura Bakufu: Japan successfully defended against Mongolian invasion attempts. Expense and compensation to warriors who fought and defended bankrupted Kamakura government. Jito and Shugo began using their power to expel civilian officials from land in their care and turn these territories into personal domains.
Mongolian War Machine: Mongolian population small relative
to the people they conquered. Tribal system. 10% of population warriors. 4-8
mounts per warrior, different horse each day. In saddle only just before battle.
Equipment—helmet, mail, bows & arrows, axe, club, tent, dried milk.
Attack in successive waves, each more heavily armed, until enemy exhausted.
Conquest easier west than east.
Koryo: Khitan was conquered and many fled to Koryo causing
trouble as they came, 1215-18. Koryo allied with Mongols against Khitan. Mongols
demanded tribute. Mongolian envoy killed and Mongols invaded 1231. Koryo resisted
until 1257.
Court moved to Cheju island, but captured 1259. North fell 1270. South 1273.
Koryo officials subordinate to Mongol. Koryo prince live in Mongol court. Yearly
tribute of gold, silver, ginseng, hawks, artisans, eunuchs and women (concubines
and slaves).
Koryo built Mongol ships for maritime invasions.
Mongloian Leaders: Chinggis 1167-1227. Ogodei 1229-1241. Guyuk (Ting-tsung) 1246-1248. Mongke (Hsien-tsung) 1251-1259. Kublai (Shih-tsung) 1260-1294.
China, Yuan dynasty: No aptitude for peace time administration. Forced to copy Chinese institutions. Relied more on non-Chinese for civil service and government. Main architect was from Khitan. Postal system, property tax and granaries 1229. Paper money 1236. Exams 1237. Reforms by Buddhist monk 1252. Beijing built 1267 by Muslim architect.
Yuan Economic policies: North peasants paid poll tax—labor, grain, cloth. South—land tax by class. South became seat of rebellion pushing Mongols out in 14th century. Mongols avoided private estates, social order as status quo—sympathy from estate owners and estate system extended. Gap between rich and poor increased. Commerce profited merchants of Central Asia and Middle East.
Racism: Mongols distrusted Chinese officials. Financial administration to Muslims from Central Asia and Middle East. Muslim merchant monopoly on tax collecting. Key government posts to Mongols. Civil governors as Mongols or Western foreigners. Example Marco Polo as governor of Yangchow. Discrimination in criminal law, civil exam system, and marriage.
Rebellions: Succession disputes among Mongols. Insubordination of nobility. Hostility of Chinese masses—harsh Mongolian exploitation, the corruption of state officials, hatred of foreigners, the privileges of the rich, price inflation from 1276 on, and clumsy authoritarian measures . Secret societies and millenary movements. Red turbans.
